Digital Powertrain Control SystemsWilliam B. Ribbens, in Understanding Automotive Electronics Eighth Edition, 2017Idle Speed ControlThe idle speed control mode is used to prevent engine stall during idle. The goal is to allow the engine to idle at as low an RPM as possible yet keep the engine from running rough and stalling when power-consuming accessories, such as air-conditioning compressors and alternators, turn control mode selection logic switches to idle speed control when the throttle angle reaches its zero completely closed position as detected by a switch on the throttle that is closed and engine RPM falls below a minimum value. This condition often occurs when the vehicle is stationary. Idle speed is controlled by using an electronically controlled throttle bypass valve, as seen in Fig. which allows air to flow around the throttle plate and produces the same effect as if the throttle had been slightly opened such that sufficient flows to maintain engine are various schemes for operating a valve to introduce bypass air for idle control. One relatively common method for controlling the idle speed bypass air uses a special type of motor called a stepper motor. One stepper motor configuration consists of a rotor with permanent magnets and two sets of windings in the stator that is powered by separate driver circuits. The configuration of a stepper motor is similar to that of a brushless DC motor as explained in Chapter 5 see Fig. Such a motor can be operated in either direction by supplying pulses in the proper phase to the windings as explained in Chapter 5. This is advantageous for idle speed control since the controller can very precisely position the idle bypass valve by sending the proper number of pulses of the correct digital engine control computer can precisely determine the position of the valve in a number of ways. In one way, the computer can send sufficient pulses to close completely the valve when the ignition is first switched on. Then, it can open pulses phased to open the valve to a specified known position. The physical configuration for the idle speed control is depicted in Fig. A block diagram for an exemplary idle speed control is depicting Fig. The variables have the same notation as given in Chapter Idle speed control addition, the digital engine control system receives digital on/off status inputs from several power-consuming devices attached to the engine, such as the air-conditioner clutch switch, park-neutral switch, and the battery charge indicator. These inputs indicate the load that is applied to the engine during full chapterURL Speed Control – A Benchmark for Hybrid System Research1Andrea Balluchi, ... Alberto L. Sangiovanni–Vincentelli, in Analysis and Design of Hybrid Systems 2006, PowertrainIn idle speed control, the gear is fixed in neutral position idle. Consequently, the secondary driveline is disconnected and does not affect the crankshaft dynamics. Due to the actions of the driver on the clutch pedal, the first part of the driveline is either connected or disconnected from the engine see Figure 1. The dynamics of the crankshaft speed n is given by the hybrid model depicted in Figure 4, where the discrete states open and closed encode the two possible positions of the clutch, the input events on and off represent the driver action on the clutch pedal, and the continuous dynamics are 4. Powertrain left and crankshaft angle right hybrid the clutch is open the primary drive-line speed n' evolves independently from the crankshaft speed n. Instead, when the clutch is closed, they evolve at the same speed n. When the clutch pedal is released open → closed, the order of the model is reduced and the common speed state is reset. When the clutch is opened closed → open, the primary driveline speed is appropriately initialized. The continuous dynamics and reset parameters depends on inertial momenta and viscous friction evolution of the crankshaft angle in the interval [0,180] gives the position of the pistons within each stroke. It is described by the simple hybrid model reported in Figure 4. The dynamics is given by the crankshaft speed n. When the crankshaft angle θ reaches the value 180, it is reset and the dead–center event dc is full chapterURL Control Methodologies for Regulating Idle Speed in Internal Combustion EnginesStephen Yurkovich, Xiaoqiu Li, in The Electrical Engineering Handbook, Engine Model for Idle Speed ControlA highly simplified two-input idle bypass valve opening and spark advance, two-output engine speed and intake manifold pressure idle speed control model for IC engines was developed by Yurkovich and Simpson 1997 and used in this work. The model includes intake manifold dynamics, induction-to-power delay, and engine rotational dynamics encompassed in the equations parameters for a Ford V-8 engine are shown in Table and all of the variables used in these dynamical equations are defined in the The V-8 Engine − sec2/ − secθd315deg0740RPMAlthough simple in nature, we emphasize that this model encompasses the essential dynamics needed for control design. Note that the model is constructed in the crank angle domain instead of the time domain. Because the engine inherently divides its continuous physical processes into four distinct events intake, compression, power, and exhaust, representation of the engine dynamics in the crank angle domain as opposed to the time domain is intuitively appealing and has certain advantages for control purposes, particularly for the idle speed control problem Yurkovich and Simpson, 1997; Chin and Coats, 1986.Letting K2 = ηυVd/4πVm and linearizing equations and about the nominal operating point 0, pm0 using the notation Δ to denote increments, the state variable form of this model, with xθ = [Δθ, Δpmθ]T and control input uθ = [Δαθ, Δδθ]T as well as f θ = fθ, is as follows and D=1Jo 0.Read full chapterURL cost electronic fuel injection for 2 and 3 wheeled motorcyclesJ. Allen, ... G. Farmer, in Innovations in Fuel Economy and Sustainable Road Transport, 20112 Application of PCI on 125 cc 4-Stroke MotorcycleAs discussed in [ref 4,5,6] there are a number of Pulse Width Modulated PWM pressurised fuel injection systems currently being developed for use on small engines. Typically these systems are adapted or derived from the technology used in automotive systems. This means the systems comprise a high pressure fuel pump and pressure regulator to control the fuel pressure at an accurate preset value and an injector housed in the throttle body which controls the flow of fuel into the engine by a variable duration width on the left-hand side in figure 3 is the fuel handling system of a conventional PWM system, with its complex and hence expensive multi component layout. In comparison the Pulse Count Injection PCI system shown on the right-hand side has a simple feed and vent line directly from the tank to the PCI injector housed in the throttlebody with no other parts required, keeping the overall system cost to an absolute 3. Comparison of fuel components between PWM and PCI 4 and 5 show the installation of the PCI engine management system on demonstration vehicles including a 125 cc motorcycle, a 250 cc 3 wheeled utility vehicle and a 50 cc scooter. In all cases the injector is located within a fuel chamber integrated directly into the throttle body. This arrangement allows the free flow of fuel direct from the fuel tank to immerse the injector and gives a free return of fuel vapour back to the tank. This free flow of fuel and vapour ensures the injector is well supplied with liquid fuel even under extreme heat conditions such as hot soak conditions without the need for expensive fuel pumps and without the need for high fuel pressures. Figure 5 also shows the air bypass and fuel mixing system used to ensure good fuel 4. Photo of the PCI engine management system fitted to 2 and 3 wheeled 5. Injectors and main components in position on the PCB and Sectional view of integrated throttle body and PCI engine management 1 shows a comparison of Euro 3 emission test cycles run at a UK emission test facility. The PCI and PWM systems are direct comparisons with the same motorbike and catalyst being used with the two electronic fuel systems. The table shows that both electronic fuel injection systems are well capable of passing Euro 3 emission limits, with the PCI system emitting less than 23% of the Euro 3 limits on all 3 measured pollutants. Both electronic systems deliver quick starting and smooth riding characteristics as you would expect from a well calibrated electronic engine management system, with virtually identical fuel consumption figures being achieved in real world UK urban driving l/100 km for the PWM system and l/100 km for the PCI system [ref 8]. Although these numbers are real world results with some degree of inherent variability they are both generated by the same driver on the same drive route, being driven in a typical UK driving manner. As a comparison data from [ref 9] indicates that the fuel injected 125 cc vehicle is slightly better than the carburetted vehicle when compared on the Indian drive cycle l/100 km EFI compared to l/100 km carburetted. These numbers also indicate the very different figures achieved using different driving 1. Comparison of Euro 3 emission results between PCI, HondaLimits of Euro 3% Sprays SS2Limits of Euro 3% ECU and ignition controlThe PCI fuel injection system also has full ignition control integrated into the ECU, as is expected on full engine management systems. As well as basic optimised ignition mapping additional spark control can be manipulated under certain conditions to enable for example; idle speed control, easy start, or fast catalyst light-off, to further improve the emissions, fuel economy and engine smoothness. The control software used in the PCI controller implements a software based crank decoder and ignition output. This allows a lower cost, non-automotive, ECU to be selected [ref 10]. To achieve the required performance the system currently uses a 32-bit Atmel ARM7 processor. As application requirements change there is further potential to optimise processor selection and cost by moving up and down the processor range. The microprocessor software is MISRA-C compliant in-house software with K-Line diagnostics functionality. The interface software, which is also in-house developed, gives a MS Windows compatible system with very intuitive and easy to use calibration full chapterURL Basics of Electronic Engine ControlWilliam B. Ribbens, in Understanding Automotive Electronics Eighth Edition, 2017Idle Speed ControlThe operation of an automotive engine at idle involves a special consideration. Under idle conditions, there is no input to the throttle from the driver via the accelerator pedal. The engine must produce exactly the torque required to balance all applied load torques from the transmission and any accessories and internal friction and pumping torques in order to run at a steady idle angular speed RPM. Certain load torques occur as a result of driver action change in the transmission selector from park or neutral to drive or reverse and switching electric loads. However, certain other load torques occur without a direct driver command air conditioner clutch actuation.As in all engine-operating modes, the torque produced by the engine at idle is determined by the mass flow rate of intake air. The electronic fuel control regulates fuel flow to maintain stoichiometry as long as the engine is fully warmed and may briefly regulate fuel to somewhat richer than stoichiometry during cold starts. Normally, at engine idle condition, the electronic engine control is intended to operate the engine at a fixed RPM regardless of load. It does this by regulating mass airflow with the throttle command from the driver at zero. The airflow required to maintain the desired idle RPM must enter the engine via the throttle assembly with the throttle at a small but nonzero angle. Alternatively, some engines are equipped with a special air passage that bypasses the throttle plate. For either method, an actuator is required to enable the electronic engine control system to regulate the idle MAF. Chapter 5 discusses various actuators having application for idle airflow control. For the present discussion, we assume a model for the idle MAF that is representative of the practical actuator configurations discussed in Chapter 5. Note, in the following analysis, the subscript I is included for all variables and parameters to emphasize that the present system refers to idle speed control.Regardless of the idle air bypass configuration, the mass airflow at idle condition which we denote is proportional to the displacement of a movable element that regulates the size of the aperture through which the idle air flows the throttle angle θT or its equivalent xT in an idle bypass structure. For the purposes of the present discussion, we assume that the engine indicated torque at idle TiI is given by KI is the constant for the idle air system; we further assume that varies linearly with the position of the idle bypass variable xI xI is the opening in the idle bypass passage way and Km the constant for this the movable element in the idle air bypass structure incorporates a spring that acts to hold xI = 0 in the absence of any actuation. The actuation force or torque acts on the force torque of this spring and the internal force torque in accelerating the mass mI or moment of inertia for rotating air bypass configuration of the movable elements and the friction force torque. We assume, for the present, a linear model for the actuator motion dI is the viscous friction constant, kI the spring rate of restoring spring, u the actuator input signal, and Ka the actuator is also necessary for this discussion of idle speed control to have a model for the relationship between indicated torque and engine angular speed at idle. To avoid potential confusion with other frequency variables, we adapt the notation I for the crankshaft angular speed of idle rad/sec. This variable is given by Eq. RPMI=RPMatidleIn general for relatively small changes in I, the load torques including friction and pumping torques can be represented by the following linear modelTLI=ReIwhere Re is essentially constant for a given engine/load configuration at a particular operating temperature. The indicated torque at idle TiI has the following approximate linear model Je is the moment of inertia of engine and load rotating the Laplace transform methods of Appendix A, it is possible to obtain the engine transfer function at idle HeIs the transfer function for the idle speed actuator dynamics HaIs is given by I=kI/mIζI=dI2mIIThese transfer functions can be combined to yield the transfer function in standard form of the idle speed control “plant” HpIs u is the control variable that is sent to the loop control of idle speed is not practical owing to the large variations in load and parameter changes due to variations in operating environmental conditions. On the other hand, CL control is well suited to regulating idle speed to a desired value. Fig. is a block diagram of such an idle speed control Idle speed control system block the analysis procedures of Appendix A and denoting the idle speed set point s, it can be shown that the idle speed control CL transfer function HCLI is given by HcI is the transfer function for the idle speed controller and Hss the transfer function for the crankshaft speed Appendix A, there were three control strategies introduced, P, PI, and PID. Of these, the proportional only P is undesirable since it has a nonzero steady-state error between I and its desired value s. It was also shown in Appendix A that a proportional-integral PI control had zero steady-state error but could potentially yield an unstable CL system. However, depending upon the system parameters, there are ranges of values for both the proportional gain Kp and integral gain KI for which stable operation is possible and for which the idle speed control system has acceptable performance. The controller transfer function for PI control is given by the purpose of illustrating exemplary idle speed control performance, we assume the following set of parametersζI= forward transfer function HFs is defined by the following expression present analysis is simplified by assuming a perfect angular speed sensor such that Hss = 1. In this case, the CL idle speed control transfer function HCLIs is given by Eq. influence of proportional gain on stability of this CL idle speed control can be evaluated via root locus techniques as explained in Appendix A. Fig. is a plot of the root locus for this idle speed control with the assumed Root locus for idle speed can be seen from this figure that the CL poles all begin in the left half complex plane and are all stable. However, as Kp increases, a pair of poles cross over into the right half complex plane and are unstable. Using the MATLAB “data cursor” function under the tools bar on the root locus plot, it can be seen that for Kp = the poles that migrate to the right-hand side of the complex plane are stable and have a damping ratio of about 25%.Using this value for Kp Kp = the CL dynamic response for the system was examined by commanding a step change in RPM from an initial 550–600 RPM at t = s. Fig. is a plot of the dynamic response of engine idle speed in RPM to this command Step response of idle speed can be seen that the idle speed reaches the command RPM after a brief transient response with zero steady-state parameters used in this idle speed control simulation are not necessarily representative of any particular engine. Rather, they have been chosen to illustrate characteristics of this important engine control function. In Chapter 6 where digital engine power train control is discussed, a discrete-time control is full chapterURL B. Ribbens, in Understanding Automotive Electronics Eighth Edition, 2017Chapter 6Chapter 6 is devoted to the entire vehicular powertrain including the traditional engine transmission drive axle coupling for a conventional vehicle. This chapter also presents a discussion of hybrid/electric vehicles. The chapter begins with a description of digital control electronics both qualitatively and quantitatively. This portion of the chapter is an extension of the basic concepts of electronic engine control introduced in Chapter 4. The discussion here concerns practical digital engine control electronics. In addition to the qualitative explanation, analytic models are developed for the control system with references to the basic discrete-time system theory of Appendix control laws are presented for control of exhaust emissions and fuel economy. The goals of the engine control are to meet or exceed government regulations for emissions of the gases explained in Chapter 4 while optimizing important performance of the engine including fuel of the benefits of digital control is its ability to compensate for various engine-operating modes including start-up, warm-up, acceleration, deceleration, and cruise as well as environmental parameters ambient air pressure and temperature. The practical digital electronic engine control is capable of being adaptive to changes in vehicle parameters that can occur, for example, with vehicle age. As explained in Chapter 4, the vehicle must meet or exceed emission requirements for a specified number of miles driven. The digital engine control can assure engine emission performance for the specific period by being an adaptive control system and is explained of the design features of contemporary engines is variable valve timing VVT which also is called variable value phasing VVP and which can optimize a parameter called volumetric efficiency see Chapter 4. The improvement in engine performance while meeting emission requirements through use of VVT/VVP is explained here, though the mechanism for implementing VVP is explained in Chapter 5 along with the associated actuator. The control subsystem for VVP is explained, and relevant analytic models are developed. The dynamic response characteristics of a VVP system are important for relatively rapid changes in RPM. The VVP models in this chapter are dynamic and are used in an analysis of the system dynamic subsystem of electronic engine control is idle speed control ISC. There are vehicle-operating conditions under which ISC can maintain engine operation with minimum fuel consumption at idle lowest operating RPM. For example, if the vehicle is stopped by operator choice or traffic control, to avoid having to restart the engine, it is operated under control of the digital engine control system at a predetermined idle speed. In addition, a vehicle traveling downhill might require no engine power to maintain desired speed. In this case, the digital engine control maintains idle speed. The theory of operation of the ISC subsystem of the digital engine control is explained, and analytic models are developed for the described configuration. In addition, performance analysis of the ISC subsystem shows that the ISC is an adaptive is important to note that as of the time of this writing, there are vehicles for which the ISC is not alone in reducing fuel consumption for a stopped vehicle. Improvements in engine starting systems have permitted the engine to be shut off if the vehicle is stopped for a sufficiently long time. Reapplication of the throttle by the driver causes essentially an instantaneous engine start such that acceleration can occur relatively quickly. However, the ISC can maintain idle RPM for the short interval until the engine is shut off automatically. Vehicles with this feature can have significant reductions in overall fuel consumption, particularly those operated in heavy traffic urban environments. This automatic engine start/stop feature is commonly used in hybrid chapter also explains electronic control of ignition that involves controlling the so-called ignition timing. Ignition timing refers to the angular position of the crankshaft relative to top dead center TDC that is the crankshaft angular position at which the piston is at the exact top of the compression stroke also discussed in Chapter 4. Chapter 6 also gives a qualitative explanation and a partial analytic model for a closed-loop automatic ignition control of the electronic control of the transmission automatic portion of the powertrain and the mechanical coupling from the transmission to the drive wheel axles differential are included in this chapter. There is a brief review of the mechanical components with illustrations. A qualitative explanation and analytic models of these components including the torque converter are presented. The gear ratio selection method, including the actuators involved for electronic control, is explained, as are the torque converter lockup methods mechanisms and actuators in the context of electronically controlled automatic major portion of Chapter 6 is devoted to hybrid electric vehicles HEVs. This section begins with a description of the physical configurations of two major categories of HEV that are known, respectively, as series or parallel HEVs. This explanation includes block diagrams of the two types of HEV and an explanation of their operation. Analytic models are developed for the electric portion of the HEV powertrain based on the discussion of electric motors in Chapter analysis is derived from these analytic models. The performance analysis leads to an explanation of the control of an HEV. This control has many functions including the selection of the mechanical power source of the IC engine or the electric motor. The process by which energy is conserved during deceleration or braking involves converting the electric motor to a generator and storing the output electric power produced by the generator in a vehicle battery. In this section of Chapter 6, there is an explanation of the mechanisms by which the HEV achieves superior fuel economy compared to an IC engine only powered vehicle of comparable size and performance analytic models relate the electric motor torque and power to this excitation. A representative HEV powered by an induction motor is explained via the analytic models and the electric excitation voltage. During electric motor propulsion operation of an HEV with the engine off, the electric power comes from the vehicular storage batteries. The voltage level of these batteries is approximately constant and not compatible with the a-c voltages required to operate the drive electric motor. Chapter 6 explains the mechanism for generating the motor excitation voltages required for operating the motor at the power and speed required for any given vehicle-operating condition. Exemplary circuit diagrams and/or block diagrams for the voltage conversion in an HEV are presented 6 concludes with a discussion of a purely electric vehicle EV. Such a vehicle has some components found in an HEV, but it has no IC engine. Reference is made to the similar components found in an full chapterURL and ActuatorsWilliam B. Ribbens, in Understanding Automotive Electronics Eighth Edition, 2017Stepper MotorsThe configuration of Fig. is similar in form to another important motor having automotive applications, which is called a stepper motor. Normally, a stepper motor has application where torque loads are relatively low. Chapter 6 discusses the application of a stepper motor in an engine idle speed control system. In most cases, the stepper motor output employs a reduction gear system in which the gear output shaft rotates at only a fraction of the stepper motor output stepper motor of the configuration depicted in Fig. has excitation currents iA and iB that are sequences of nonoverlapping pulses. The relative phasing of the pulses determines the direction of motor rotation. The motor rotates a fixed angular increment for each pair of pulses iA and iB. Very precise angular position control is obtained for a stepper motor by the number and relative phasing of pairs of such pulses. A control system can advance the load placed on the stepper motor-gear system by a specified amount via the number of output pulses sent to the motor. Feedback via a position sensor of the load movement can be used in conjunction with the output pulses to assure the desired displacement of the load object on the motor/gear speed of motion of the output shaft is proportional to the pulse frequency of the sequences of pulses on iA and iB. However, any such stepper motor has an upper bound on this speed such that the driving pulses are nonoverlapping in full chapterURL Control SystemsUwe Kiencke, in Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology Third Edition, 2003IV Idle Speed ControlFigure 6 shows a cross-section of the intake manifold. The throttle angle controls the mass air flow, into the manifold. Diesel engines are either unthrottled or very moderately throttled in some operating points in order to ensure a sufficient exhaust gas recirculation. The mass air flow out from the manifold into the cylinders, depends on the pressure level in the intake manifold, pm and the pressure in the cylinder, pc. To control the air–fuel ratio, λ, correctly in transients, the injected amount of fuel must be adapted to the mass air flow into the cylinder, rather than to the mass air flow into the intake manifold, 6. Cross-section of intake oscillations in the intake manifold shall be neglected averaged model. A change in mass air flow results in a delayed change in manifold pressure pm. The applicable differential equation is derived from an energy equilibrium The change of the internal energy of the air mass in the intake manifold is equal to the sum of in- and outgoing energy flows plus the balance of energy changes of the gas due to the displacement work pV. By introducing the specific internal energy u = U/m and the specific enthalpy h = H/m, the differential equation becomes7ddtma,inuin= the specific heat coefficients cv = u/ϑ and cp = h/ϑ, the adiabatic exponent κ = cp/cv, the gas constant R, as well as the air density ρ = m/V, we get the following equation for the pressure change8 is difficult to measure the mass air flow from the manifold into the cylinder, Since the dynamic response of is much faster than that of the manifold pressure pm, only the static behavior of shall be considered by a look-up table f1n, pm Fig. 7. The mass air flow depends on the engine speed n and the manifold pressure pm at stationary operation, where the derivatives are n.=0 and 7. Dynamic model of intake manifold.9 pressure change in the intake manifold is given by10 the integration time constant 11=VmκRϑaThe integration time constant depends upon the operating condition of the engine. At one test engine, it varies between 21 ms and 740 ms. A comparison between measured and calculated manifold pressure and engine speed n is shown in Fig. 8. The energy conversion process is extremely complex and highly nonlinear. In a simplified approach, the stationary dependence of the combustion torque Tcomb from intake manifold pressure and engine speed shall be represented by a second nonlinear look-up table f2n, pm, which can be measured at all engine operating points. The dynamic behavior is separately considered by a combination of first-order lag time Tl,e and a dead time Td, 8. Comparison of measured and calculated manifold time constants vary inversely proportional to engine torque balance at the crankshaft is122πJdndt=Tcomb−TloadAn engine with an open clutch without the driveline has a moment of inertia in the range ofJ= introducing normalized variables, we get13︸Tj2πJn0T0dn/n0dt=TcombT0−TloadT0with a time constant,14Tj=2πJn0T0At maximum torque output T0 and engine speed n0J = Kg/m3n0 = 6000 rpmT0 = 300 NmThe time constant TJ = s. When accelerating from low engine speed with maximum torque, the moment of inertial J is an order of magnitude smaller, however, TJ is an order of magnitude larger at high engine speed and minimum torque output when coasting. The load torque comprises friction, auxiliary drives, and disturbances. The complete plant model for idle speed control is shown in Fig. 9. For the controller design, the two maps f1n, pm and f2n, pm are linearized at the idle-speed operation point Introducing first order differentialsFIGURE 9. Block diagram of idle speed control.15FN1=f1nn=n0FN2=f2nn=n0FP1=f1pmpm=pm,0FP2=f2pmpm=pm,0and difference variables, we get16 differential equation from the manifold model, Eq. 10, is Laplace-transformed and, when combined with Eq. 16, becomes18snΔPmpm,0=− incoming air flow serves as a control input Δ U. Equation 17 is also Laplace-transformed and extended by the engine lag and delay times19ΔTcombT0=FN2n0T0e−sTd,esTl,eΔNn0+FP2pm,0T0e−sTd,e1+sTl,eΔPmpm,0This is now inserted into the torque balance, Eq. 13. Neglecting the disturbance load torque Tload for control purposes, we get20sTJΔNn0=e−sTd,e1+sTl,eFN2n0T0ΔNn0+FP2pm,0T0ΔPmpm,0The stability analysis of the plant model and the controller design shall now be done by neglecting time constants Td,e and Tl,e. The subsequent approach simplifies to a second-order linear state space model21S[ΔPmpm,0ΔNn0]=︸A¯[−FP1npm, state space control with proportional feedback can be done by, for example, pole placement. An additional integral feedback is added in order to compensate for offsets due to disturbance loads. The entire system is shown in Fig. 9. In Fig. 10, a critical disturbance input from the driver is shown, which comes simultaneously with a disturbance torque. Only a very minor undershoot in engine speed can be seen. The idle speed control of diesel engines can be accomplished in a similar way. There are two major differences in comparison to SI enginesFIGURE 10. Disturbance input from driver and simultaneous gear shift to Drive position as disturbance intake manifold is unthrottled, so that the engine is getting the maximum possible mass air flow in each operation direct fuel injection, the delay time Tl,e may be significantly two points simplify the control design. A complication would be turbo charging, which introduces a significant time delay for the response of the mass air flow to the control input full chapterURL hybrid transportation systems Design, modeling, and energy managementM. Ceraolo, G. Lutzemberger, in Hybrid Technologies for Power Generation, Modeling criteriaAll subsystems can be modeled weighting accuracy and complexity for the considered purpose. Examples of hydrostatic simulation models can be found also in Refs. [24–27] also in reference to the powertrain machine architecture. Similar approaches in other fields are followed also in Refs. [28, 29]. The main subsystems of these models are hereinafter ICE model, the source for the vehicle energy propulsion, uses the characteristic torque and BSFC maps at partial and full load, and its mechanical inertia. The model includes the control of the fuel flow including over run fuel cut off and idle speed pumps and motors are modeled by considering their inertia, and evaluating flow and mechanical losses through a map-based approach. Their efficiency is computed as a function of the shaft speed and the difference of pressure between input and output. The ideal flow rate is determined by the shaft speed, pump displacement, and swash fraction, the latter only in case of variable displacement pumps, while the real flow rate comes from the ideal one plus the addition of leakage, function of inlet pressure and difference of pressure between input and regards check and relief valves, it suffices to describe the static algebraic input-output relationship based on the input and output port pressures, since the speed of response of the valves is many times faster than that of the overall system [30]. Additionally, the hydraulic spool valves, the components that control the actuators’ operation, have been accurately modeled in this regard a submodel of a 3 position 6 port hydraulic center DC proportional valve has been defined and validated with experimental results [20].The working machine kinematic model is defined considering the arm, bucket and joints dimension, mass and inertia, as resulted from the CAD models provided by the manufacturer. The vehicle dynamics is studied considering its longitudinal behavior. Although in the actual vehicle the motors drive independently the left and right driving wheels during turning, these motors have different rotational speed due to different flow rate provided by the controlled pumps, in the models used for the study the two motors are considered to be rotating always simultaneously and steering was not vehicle resistance is evaluated by considering the usual term, composed of the rolling resistance and the aerodynamic drag the latter can be neglected considering the extremely low vehicle speed, plus the addition of other contributions representative the effects of soil compaction, bulldozing and other ground interactions.14Ftotal=FrR+Frα+FrA+FsC+FsB+FsGFurther details can be retrieved from Ref. [14]. Additionally, the vehicle mass taken as being variable during the vehicle operation, to consider the effects of the bucket regards electric machines EM and EG see Fig. 11, the used models replace the machines, their converter and the related control by physical models. A physical model of an asynchronous induction machine with integrated inverter and field-oriented control, including voltage and current limitation as well as flux weakening, is used [20].The energy storage is typically modeled through an equivalent electrical circuit, characterized by the presence of voltage source and an internal resistance [20]. The parameters and their dependency from SOC can be easily determined by some basic experimental full chapterURL

Dimanagerakan kebelakang akan memperbesar saluran idle sehingga jumlah udara yang masuk ke intake menjadi semakin besar. Pada posisi normal, katup ini akan menutup saluran idle. Ketika mesin hidup pada posisi idle, tegangan dari ECU akan membuat kemagnetan pada solenoid yang akan menarik poros dan membuka saluran idle.

MengontrolKecepatan Mesin Pada Saat Idle Hampir semua mesin memiliki sistem Idle Speed Control yang terintergrasi di dalam ECU. RPM mesin dipantau oleh Crankshaft Position Sensor yang memainkan peranan utama dalam fungsi mengontrol waktu injeksi bahan bakar, mengatur kapan dilakukannya percikan, dan buka tutupnya katup. g9oQnO.

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cara kerja idle speed control